Can you eat eggplant raw?
By
Dr Anny Manrich (PhD)
| Reviewed by
Dr Anny Manrich (PhD)
The contents of this article are fact-based except otherwise stated within the article.
Author bio
Dr Anny Manrich PhD is a food Engineer with expertise in Food Technology, Natural Polymers, Edible Films, Enzymes, and Nanotechnology. She writes and reviews content on these topics.
Dr Anny Manrich’s Highlights:
- Research and Technology at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation
- PhD in Chemical Engineering with a focus on Biochemistry at the Federal University of Sao Carlos/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
- Bachelor of Food Engineering at the University of Campinas/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
“To solve a problem, global vision and multifactorial understanding are necessary. Therefore, in addition to expertise, one should seek multidisciplinary thinking connected with science and reality” – Dr Anny Manrich, PhD.
Professional Experience:
Dr Anny Manrich’s Experience Joining the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, as soon as she completed her doctorate,
Dr Anny Manrich has worked on several projects, including the more than three-year partnership project with BRF, a major food producer in Brazil. As a postdoctoral fellow.
Dr Anny Manrich has also contributed to several business consultancies and research projects of the National Nanotechnology Laboratory System in areas such as food technology, fibres, films and coatings and Nanotechnology; in a very determined way, having a great team relationship, being creative and committed.
Growing concerns about the safe introduction of nanomaterials into today’s life emphasises the need to create regulatory documentation in front of characterising, using and testing them. Dr Anny Manrich worked for two years on a characterization project for nanoscale materials, with the aim of exploring their possible health effects.
Despite not having specific academic training in packaging or polymeric films, Dr Anny Manrich works at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation in areas of edible and biodegradable films produced from agricultural waste and in the development of films with greater resistance to water, having articles published in renowned scientific journals, which demonstrates her multidisciplinary understanding and creativity.
In addition, she worked for four years as a consultant to a food company to develop a line of snacks that are healthy and that add functional ingredients, physiologically active compounds that bring health benefits, made from fruits and vegetables, enabling diet improvement, disease prevention and reduction of nutritional deficiencies.
Dr Anny Manrich participated as a member of the examination board for two Master’s exams and one PhD exam at the Department of Chemical Engineering of the Federal University of São Carlos.
Education:
- 2001 Bachelor in Food Engineering at the State University of Campinas, Brazil
- 1999 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
- 2004 Master in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2012 PhD in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2010 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
The main publications of Dr. Anny Manrich are:
Articles
Manrich, A., Moreira, F. K., Otoni, C. G., Lorevice, M. V., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. (2017). Hydrophobic edible films made up of tomato cutin and pectin. Carbohydrate Polymers, 164, 83-91.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H. A., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Correlating emulsion characteristics with the properties of active starch films loaded with lemongrass essential oil. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, 105428.
Norcino, L. B., Mendes, J. F., Natarelli, C. V. L., Manrich, A., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Pectin films loaded with copaiba oil nanoemulsions for potential use as bio-based active packaging. Food Hydrocolloids, 106, 105862.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization of trypsin on chitosan gels: Use of different activation protocols and comparison with other supports. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 43.1 (2008): 54-61.
Manrich, Anny; Komesu, Andrea ; Adriano, Wellington Sabino; Tardioli, Paulo Waldir ; Giordano, Raquel Lima Camargo . Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by Multipoint Covalent Attachment on Agarose and on Chitosan Supports. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, v. 161, p. 455-467, 2010.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Neto, A. S., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Mattoso, L. H. C., & Martins, M. A. (2019). Development and physical-chemical properties of pectin film reinforced with spent coffee grounds by continuous casting. Carbohydrate polymers, 210, 92-99..
Milessi, T. S., Kopp, W., Rojas, M. J., Manrich, A., Baptista-Neto, A., Tardioli, P. W., … & Giordano, R. L. (2016). Immobilization and stabilization of an endoxylanase from Bacillus subtilis (XynA) for xylooligosaccharides (XOs) production. Catalysis Today, 259, 130-139.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Manrich, A., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Development, physical‐chemical properties, and photodegradation of pectin film reinforced with malt bagasse fibers by continuous casting. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 137(39), 49178.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Luchesi, B. R., Dantas, A. P. S., Vanderlei, R. M., … & Martins, M. A. (2021). Thermo-physical and mechanical characteristics of composites based on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) e spent coffee grounds (SCG). Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 29, 2888-2900..
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Development of quaternary nanocomposites made up of cassava starch, cocoa butter, lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion, and brewery spent grain fibers. Journal of Food Science, 86(5), 1979-1996.
Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Manufacture and performance of peanut skin cellulose nanocrystals. Scientia Agricola, 79.
Nascimento, V. M., Manrich, A., Tardioli, P. W., de Campos Giordano, R., de Moraes Rocha, G. J., & Giordano, R. D. L. C. (2016). Alkaline pretreatment for practicable production of ethanol and xylooligosaccharides. Bioethanol, 2(1)..
Manrich, Anny, de Oliveira, J. E., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. Physicochemical and Thermal Characterization of the Spirulina platensis. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. B, v. 10, p. 298-307, 2020.
Book Chapter
Terra, I. A. A., Aoki, P. H., Delezuk, J. A. D. M., Martins, M. A., Manrich, A., Silva, M. J., … & Miranda, P. B. (2022). Técnicas de Caracterização de Polímeros. Nanotecnologia Aplicada a Polímeros, 614.
Conference Papers
Ferreira, L. F., Luvizaro, L. B., Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., Júnior, M. G., & Dias, M. V. (2017). Comparação da estabilidade de suspensões poliméricas de amido/tocoferol e quitosana/tocoferol. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE POLÍMEROS, 14., 2017, Águas de Lindóia, SP.
Manrich, A., Hubinger, S. Z., & Paris, E. C. (2017). Citotoxicidade causada por nanomateriais: avaliação do micronúcleo. In: WORKSHOP DA REDE DE NANOTECNOLOGIA APLICADA AO AGRONEGÓCIO, 9., 2017, São Carlos. Anais… São Carlos: Embrapa Instrumentação, 2017. p. 655-658.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by multipoint covalent attachment on Glyoxyl Agarose Support. The 31st Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2009.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Application of immobilized xylanase on hydrolysis of soluble wood hemicelluloses after using microwave and organosolv pre-treatments. The 32nd Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2010.
You can view some of Dr Anny’s work below and links to her professional profile.
Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anny-Manrich-2
Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=23103497100
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Ea9qpr0AAAAJ
Linkedin: https://br.linkedin.com/in/anny-manrich-20693129
Reviewer bio
Dr Anny Manrich PhD is a food Engineer with expertise in Food Technology, Natural Polymers, Edible Films, Enzymes, and Nanotechnology. She writes and reviews content on these topics.
Dr Anny Manrich’s Highlights:
- Research and Technology at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation
- PhD in Chemical Engineering with a focus on Biochemistry at the Federal University of Sao Carlos/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
- Bachelor of Food Engineering at the University of Campinas/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
“To solve a problem, global vision and multifactorial understanding are necessary. Therefore, in addition to expertise, one should seek multidisciplinary thinking connected with science and reality” – Dr Anny Manrich, PhD.
Professional Experience:
Dr Anny Manrich’s Experience Joining the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, as soon as she completed her doctorate,
Dr Anny Manrich has worked on several projects, including the more than three-year partnership project with BRF, a major food producer in Brazil. As a postdoctoral fellow.
Dr Anny Manrich has also contributed to several business consultancies and research projects of the National Nanotechnology Laboratory System in areas such as food technology, fibres, films and coatings and Nanotechnology; in a very determined way, having a great team relationship, being creative and committed.
Growing concerns about the safe introduction of nanomaterials into today’s life emphasises the need to create regulatory documentation in front of characterising, using and testing them. Dr Anny Manrich worked for two years on a characterization project for nanoscale materials, with the aim of exploring their possible health effects.
Despite not having specific academic training in packaging or polymeric films, Dr Anny Manrich works at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation in areas of edible and biodegradable films produced from agricultural waste and in the development of films with greater resistance to water, having articles published in renowned scientific journals, which demonstrates her multidisciplinary understanding and creativity.
In addition, she worked for four years as a consultant to a food company to develop a line of snacks that are healthy and that add functional ingredients, physiologically active compounds that bring health benefits, made from fruits and vegetables, enabling diet improvement, disease prevention and reduction of nutritional deficiencies.
Dr Anny Manrich participated as a member of the examination board for two Master’s exams and one PhD exam at the Department of Chemical Engineering of the Federal University of São Carlos.
Education:
- 2001 Bachelor in Food Engineering at the State University of Campinas, Brazil
- 1999 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
- 2004 Master in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2012 PhD in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2010 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
The main publications of Dr. Anny Manrich are:
Articles
Manrich, A., Moreira, F. K., Otoni, C. G., Lorevice, M. V., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. (2017). Hydrophobic edible films made up of tomato cutin and pectin. Carbohydrate Polymers, 164, 83-91.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H. A., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Correlating emulsion characteristics with the properties of active starch films loaded with lemongrass essential oil. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, 105428.
Norcino, L. B., Mendes, J. F., Natarelli, C. V. L., Manrich, A., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Pectin films loaded with copaiba oil nanoemulsions for potential use as bio-based active packaging. Food Hydrocolloids, 106, 105862.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization of trypsin on chitosan gels: Use of different activation protocols and comparison with other supports. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 43.1 (2008): 54-61.
Manrich, Anny; Komesu, Andrea ; Adriano, Wellington Sabino; Tardioli, Paulo Waldir ; Giordano, Raquel Lima Camargo . Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by Multipoint Covalent Attachment on Agarose and on Chitosan Supports. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, v. 161, p. 455-467, 2010.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Neto, A. S., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Mattoso, L. H. C., & Martins, M. A. (2019). Development and physical-chemical properties of pectin film reinforced with spent coffee grounds by continuous casting. Carbohydrate polymers, 210, 92-99..
Milessi, T. S., Kopp, W., Rojas, M. J., Manrich, A., Baptista-Neto, A., Tardioli, P. W., … & Giordano, R. L. (2016). Immobilization and stabilization of an endoxylanase from Bacillus subtilis (XynA) for xylooligosaccharides (XOs) production. Catalysis Today, 259, 130-139.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Manrich, A., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Development, physical‐chemical properties, and photodegradation of pectin film reinforced with malt bagasse fibers by continuous casting. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 137(39), 49178.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Luchesi, B. R., Dantas, A. P. S., Vanderlei, R. M., … & Martins, M. A. (2021). Thermo-physical and mechanical characteristics of composites based on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) e spent coffee grounds (SCG). Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 29, 2888-2900..
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Development of quaternary nanocomposites made up of cassava starch, cocoa butter, lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion, and brewery spent grain fibers. Journal of Food Science, 86(5), 1979-1996.
Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Manufacture and performance of peanut skin cellulose nanocrystals. Scientia Agricola, 79.
Nascimento, V. M., Manrich, A., Tardioli, P. W., de Campos Giordano, R., de Moraes Rocha, G. J., & Giordano, R. D. L. C. (2016). Alkaline pretreatment for practicable production of ethanol and xylooligosaccharides. Bioethanol, 2(1)..
Manrich, Anny, de Oliveira, J. E., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. Physicochemical and Thermal Characterization of the Spirulina platensis. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. B, v. 10, p. 298-307, 2020.
Book Chapter
Terra, I. A. A., Aoki, P. H., Delezuk, J. A. D. M., Martins, M. A., Manrich, A., Silva, M. J., … & Miranda, P. B. (2022). Técnicas de Caracterização de Polímeros. Nanotecnologia Aplicada a Polímeros, 614.
Conference Papers
Ferreira, L. F., Luvizaro, L. B., Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., Júnior, M. G., & Dias, M. V. (2017). Comparação da estabilidade de suspensões poliméricas de amido/tocoferol e quitosana/tocoferol. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE POLÍMEROS, 14., 2017, Águas de Lindóia, SP.
Manrich, A., Hubinger, S. Z., & Paris, E. C. (2017). Citotoxicidade causada por nanomateriais: avaliação do micronúcleo. In: WORKSHOP DA REDE DE NANOTECNOLOGIA APLICADA AO AGRONEGÓCIO, 9., 2017, São Carlos. Anais… São Carlos: Embrapa Instrumentação, 2017. p. 655-658.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by multipoint covalent attachment on Glyoxyl Agarose Support. The 31st Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2009.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Application of immobilized xylanase on hydrolysis of soluble wood hemicelluloses after using microwave and organosolv pre-treatments. The 32nd Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2010.
You can view some of Dr Anny’s work below and links to her professional profile.
Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anny-Manrich-2
Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=23103497100
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Ea9qpr0AAAAJ
Linkedin: https://br.linkedin.com/in/anny-manrich-20693129
In this article, we will answer the question “Can you eat eggplant raw?” and discuss is it safe?
Can you eat eggplant raw?
Yes, you can eat eggplant raw. Even though eating raw eggplants is very beneficial to your health, the flavor of raw eggplants can be revolting due to the presence of saponins and glycoalkaloids in its composition (1,2).
Raw eggplant is packed with nutrients including protein, fat, carbs, and a variety of vitamins, as well as minerals like calcium, phosphorus, and iron (3).
Raw eggplant has a great vitamin P concentration that seems to be found mainly in the peel (4). Vitamin P also called rutin seems to have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and cardioprotective action (5). When it comes to cardiovascular health, vitamin P softens blood vessels, increases their flexibility, and toughens them up (6).
Is it safe to consume eggplant raw?
Raw eggplant is safe to consume, but there are a few things to bear in mind before doing so. The nightshade family includes eggplant, potatoes, and tomatoes, all of which contain the toxin solanine.
The solanine in raw eggplant is generally safe for most people to consume in moderation without suffering any negative side effects, but some individuals are hypersensitive to it and have stomach pain, vomiting and flushing as a result. Poisoning by solanine is not very common but it has been reported before (7).
The solanine content of mature vegetables is very low. Glycoalkaloid concentrations are higher in immature vegetables (8). Raw eggplant, depending on the variety, may be bitter.
However, it may be prepared and handled in many ways to give it a variety of tastes and textures. Besides, one alternative is to salt the eggplant and let it drain completely before eating. You should rinse and squeeze the eggplant dry before eating it since the salting releases moisture that carries bitterness.
What are the risks of eating eggplant raw?
As mentioned above, eating raw eggplant may cause you poisoning. It is because solanine is a substance produced by potato, tomato and eggplant as a protection against insects and it can be poisoning to human if eaten in a large amount.
The safe level of human glycoalkaloid consumption is 1 mg/kg body weight and even this level can cause gastrointestinal symptoms (10). So, If you , choose to eat it raw, a good recommendation is to peel it before consuming it.
What are the risks of eating vegetables raw?
The risks of eating vegetables raw go beyond solanine or other potentially toxic substances produced by vegetables. It may also be related to food contamination with germs such as bacteria.
Salmonella, E. Colli e Listeria are responsible for a large percentage of foodborne illness in the USA. So the safest is to have vegetable cooked, if not possible, you may wash it appropriately under running water (16).
Does cooking eliminate solanine from eggplant?
Cooking does not eliminate solanine. This compound is heat-stable and it seems to decompose at temperatures above 230℃ (14). Blanching, on the other hand, seems to reduce solanine levels by 35%-56% (15), making it an option for eggplant lovers.
How to cook eggplants safely to reduce the risks?
To reduce the risks of poisoning you may blanch the eggplant. Blanching consists of pouring round slices of eggplant into boiling water for about four minutes and then into ice water to quickly cool it down.\ You can do it before preparing a dish or in order to freeze not only eggplant but also other vegetables.
Who would not eat vegetables raw?
People with weak immune systems would not eat eggplant or other vegetables raw. If you have any condition that weakens your body you should avoid eating food that is not cooked or washed properly (12).
Health conditions like cancer, liver disease, HIV among others, can reduce the ability of your body to fight against bacteria and germs and so, you are more likely to have a foodborne illness and to present more severe symptoms.
Pregnant women, adults aged 65 or more and children younger than 5 are also groups more susceptible to develop severe symptoms in case of food poisoning (13).
When is it inappropriate to consume eggplant raw?
It is inappropriate to consume eggplant raw when it is spoiled. Fresh eggplants will keep for three to five days at room temperature if stored properly (9). Choose a vegetable with vivid color and a firm texture the moment you buy it. If you realize the eggplant is moldy, do not eat. Some molds are toxic and they can cause you allergy and even respiratory problems (11).
Conclusion
In this article, we answered the question “Can you eat eggplant raw?” “is it safe” and “when is it inappropriate to consume eggplant?”
Reference
- Umesh K. Kandoliya, Vijay K. Bajaniya, Nikunj K. Bhadja, Neha P. Bodar and Baljibhai A. Golakiya. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2015)4(2):806-813.
- Filomena Lelario, Susanna De Maria, Anna Rita Rivelli, Daniela Russo, Luigi Milella, Sabino Aurelio Bufo, and Laura Scrano. A Complete Survey of Glycoalkaloids Using LC-FTICR-MS and IRMPD in a Commercial Variety and a Local Landrace of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and their Anticholinesterase and Antioxidant Activities. Toxins 2019, 11(4), 230.
- U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169228/nutrients
- Riyue Dong , Bingwei Yu , Shuangshuang Yan , Zhengkun Qiu Jianjun Lei, Changming Chen, Ye Li, Bihao Cao. Analysis of Vitamin P Content and Inheritance Models in Eggplant. Horticultural Plant Journal, 6, (4), July 2020, p. 240-246.
- Gullon, B., T. A. Lu-Chau, M. T. Moreira, J. M. Lema, and G. Eibes. 2017. Rutin: A review on extraction, identification and purification methods, biological activities and approaches to enhance its bioavailability. Trends in Food Science and Technology 67:220–235.
- Hosseinzadeh H, Nassiri-Asl M. Review of the protective effects of rutin on the metabolic function as an important dietary flavonoid. J Endocrinol Invest. 2014;37:783–788.
- Donald G. Barceloux MD. Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Solanine Toxicity (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanum lycopersicum L.) Disease-a-Month. Volume 55, Issue 6, June 2009, Pages 391-402.
- T C Cronk, G D Kuhn, F J McArdle. The influence of stage of maturity, level of nitrogen fertilization and storage on the concentration of solanine in tubers of three potato cultivars. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 1974 Feb;11(2):163-8.
- Sudhir Singh, B. Singh, Tanweer Alam. Evaluation of shelf-life, antioxidant activity and nutritional quality attributes in carnauba wax coated eggplant genotypes. J Food Sci Technol. 2019 Nov; 56(11): 4826–4833.
- Mendel Friedman, P. R.Henika and B. E. Mackey. Feeding of Potato, Tomato and Eggplant Alkaloids Affects Food Consumption and Body and Liver Weights in Mice.
- US Departament of Agriculture. Molds on Food: Are they Dangerous? Last updated Aug, 22, 2013. Available at: https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/molds-food-are-they-dangerous. Accessed on 22 May 2023.
- New Zealand Food Safety. Food Safety when you have low immunity. Updated August, 2022. Available at: https://www.mpi.govt.nz/dmsdocument/7260-Food-safety-when-you-have-low-immunity Accessed on 22 May 2023.
- FoodSafety.gov. Last review on March, 31, 2022. Available at: https://www.foodsafety.gov/people-at-risk/people-with-weakened-immune-systems Accessed on 23 May 2023.
- L. Bejarano, A. Devaux, N. Espinola, E. Mignolet, E. Carrasco, and Y. Larondelle, “Glycoalkaloids in potato tubers: the effect of variety and drought stress on the α‐solanine and α‐chaconine contents of potatoes,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, vol. 80, no. 14, pp. 2096–2100, 2000.
- Łukasz P. Haliński, Alan Puckowski, Piotr Stepnowski. Glycoalkaloid, phytosterol and fatty acid content of raw and blanched leaves of the gboma eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon L.). Journal of Food and Nutrition Research (2015), 54, 9-20.
- Centers For Disease Control and Prevention. Fruit and Vegetable Safety. Available in: https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/communication/steps-healthy-fruits-veggies.html#:~:text=manage%20your%20weight.-,Sometimes%2C%20raw%20fruits%20and%20vegetables%20contain%20harmful%20germs%20that%20can,the%20next%20safest%20is%20washed.CDC . Last updated on 31 jan 2023. Accessed on 27 May 2023.
