Can vegans eat yeast?
By
Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira (PhD)
| Reviewed by
Dr Anny Manrich (PhD)
The contents of this article are fact-based except otherwise stated within the article.
Author bio
Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira graduated in Biological Sciences with an emphasis on microbiology and immunology. She is PhD in Biochemical Process Engineering. With more than 15 years of experience, she has expertise in Bioprocess, Fermentation, Industrial Microbiology, Biotechnology, Bioinputs, Biopolymer and Bioinsecticide production and Biosecurity.
Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira’s Highlights
- Researcher Consultant at the SENAI Innovation Institute (ISI – SENAI CETIQT) and member of the Internal Biosafety Commission (CIBio) of SENAI CETIQT
- Postdoctoral fellowship at the Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil in the Postgraduate Program in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology
- International Experience in Barcelona/Spain – Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering at the Autonomous University of Barcelona/Spain.
- Coordinator and technical-scientific responsible for the Laboratory -Platform of Fermentation in Scale Pilot up to 125 L (Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil)
- Collaborating researcher at the University of Brasilia/Brazil
- PhD and master’s degree in Chemical and Biochemical Process Engineering at the Federal at the University of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil
- Undergraduate professor at Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil
- Bachelor’s degree in Biological Sciences: Microbiology and Immunology at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil
Professional profile:
Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira was a Researcher Consultant for the Biotechnology platform of SENAI CETIQT/SENAI Institute of Innovation in Biosynthetic and Fibers, linked to the fermentation area. In addition, she was a member of the Internal Biosafety Commission (CIBio) of SENAI CETIQT
She played a role in leading the fermentation laboratory, including operational training of equipment; installation of a pilot fermenter at the Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil.
She additionally was an undergraduate Professor in the Biological Sciences, Pharmacy and General Training courses in Postgraduate Courses (Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil)
She was a researcher at the University of Brasilia/Brazil.
Besides that, Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira has done a technical visit to the Autonomous University of Barcelona/Spain
Furthermore, she has experience in reviewing scientific articles at the Brazilian Journal of Microbiology and the Microbial Cell Factories.
Education:
- 2020 – Postdoctoral in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology at the Catholic University of Brasilia/Brazil
- 2014 – PhD in Chemical and Biochemical Process Engineering at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil
- 2010 – Master’s degree in Chemical and Biochemical Process Engineering at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil
- 2008 – Bachelor in Biological Sciences (Microbiology and Immunology) at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro/Brazil
Relevant Published work & citations of Dr Juliana Davies de Oliveira
Articles
De Oliveira, Juliana Davies; Carvalho, Lucas Silva; Gomes, Antônio Milton Vieira; Queiroz, Lúcio Rezende; Magalhães, Beatriz Simas; Parachin, Nádia Skorupa. Genetic basis for hyper production of hyaluronic acid in natural and engineered microorganisms. Microbial Cell Factories, v. 15, p. 119-126, 2016.
Oliveira, Juliana D.; Lopes, L. M. A.; Pimenta, Flávia D.; Sérvulo, Eliana F. C. Low Cost Production of Pullulan Obtained From Granulated Sugar and Different Nitrogen Sources. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, v. 15, p. 11-17, 2015.
Oliveira, Juliana D.; Pimenta, Flávia D.; Lopes, Lea M. A.; Sérvulo, Eliana F. C. Rheological Analysis of Biopolymer Produced by Aureobasidium pullulans in Different Sources of Nitrogen. Macromolecular Symposia (Online), v. 319, p. 143-149, 2012.
Patents
De Oliveira, Juliana Davies; Parachin, N. S.; Gomes, A. M. V.; Carvalho, Lucas Silva; Magalhães, B. S. Levedura recombinante da espécie Kluyveromyces lactis para a produção de grandes cadeias de ácido hialurônico. 2016, Brasil. Register number: BR10201602018; Registration institution: INPI – National Institute of Industrial Property. Deposit: 08/31/2016
De oliveira, juliana davies; parachin, nádia skorupa; gomes, a. M. V.; magalhães, b. S.; carvalho, lucas silva. Levedura recombinante da espécie Hansenula polymorpha para a produção de grandes cadeias de ácido hialurônico. 2016, Brasil. Register number: BR10201602019; Registration institution: INPI – National Institute of Industrial Property. Deposit: 08/31/2016.
Book Chapters
Silva, O. B.; Carvalho, Lucas Silva; Almeida, G. C.; Oliveira, Juliana D.; Carmo, T. S.; Parachin, N. S. Biogas – Turning Waste into Clean Energy. In: Angela Faustino Jozala. (Org.). Fermentation Processes. 1ed.Rijeka, Croatia: Intech, 2017, v., p. 161-180.
Carvalho, L.; Silva, O. B.; Almeida, G. C.; Oliveira, Juliana D.; Parachin, N. S.; Carmo, T. S. Production Processes for Monoclonal Antibodies. In: Angela Faustino Jozala. (Org.). Fermentation Processes. 1ed.Rijeka, Croatia: Intech, 2017, v., p. 181-198.
Conference Papers
Oliveira, J. D.; Lopes, L. M. A.; Pimenta, Flávia D.; De Paula, R. C. M.; Sérvulo, Eliana F. C. Avaliação de metodologia para recuperação de pululana livre de melanina. In: 12º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2013, Florianópolis. 12º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2013.
Oliveira, J. D.; Lopes, L. M. A.; Pimenta, Flávia D.; Sérvulo, Eliana F. C. Produção de pululana em função das concentrações de carbono e nitrogênio. In: XIX Simpósio Nacional de Bioprocessos, 2013, Foz do Iguaçu. XIX Simpósio Nacional de Bioprocessos, 2013.
Oliveira, J. D.; Pimenta, F. D.; Servulo, E. F. C. Produção de pululana a partir de matéria-prima de baixo custo. In: 11º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2011, Campos do Jordão/SP. 11º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2011. p. 68.
Oliveira, J. D.; Pimenta, F. D.; Servulo, E. F. C. Avaliação reológica do biopolímero produzido por Aureobasidium pullulans em diferentes fontes de nitrogênio. In: 11º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2011, Campos do Jordão/SP. 11º Congresso Brasileiro de Polímeros, 2011. p. 19.
Oliveira, J. D.; Pimenta, F. D.; Lopes, L. M. A.; Sarquis, M. I. M.; Servulo, E. F. C. Seleção de estirpe e fonte de nitrogênio para produção de biopolímero a partir de matéria-prima de baixo custo. In: XVII Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia Química, 2008, Recife. XVII Congresso Brasileiro de Engenharia Química, 2008.
Oliveira, J. D.; Servulo, E. F. C.; Pimenta, F. D.; Lopes, L. M. A. Utilização de matéria prima de baixo custo para produção de biopolímero. In: IV Simpósio de Microbiologia Aplicada, 2009, Rio Claro/SP. Holos Environment – Suplemento 1 – IV Simpósio de Microbiologia Aplicada, 2009. v. 9.
You can view some of Dr Juliana’s work below and links to her professional profile:
Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juliana-Oliveira-2/research
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=G3ZLG84AAAAJ&hl=pt-BR
Linkedin: linkedin.com/in/juliana-davies-de-oliveira-285749197
Reviewer bio
Dr Anny Manrich PhD is a food Engineer with expertise in Food Technology, Natural Polymers, Edible Films, Enzymes, and Nanotechnology. She writes and reviews content on these topics.
Dr Anny Manrich’s Highlights:
- Research and Technology at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation
- PhD in Chemical Engineering with a focus on Biochemistry at the Federal University of Sao Carlos/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
- Bachelor of Food Engineering at the University of Campinas/ Brazil and a one-year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich/ Germany
“To solve a problem, global vision and multifactorial understanding are necessary. Therefore, in addition to expertise, one should seek multidisciplinary thinking connected with science and reality” – Dr Anny Manrich, PhD.
Professional Experience:
Dr Anny Manrich’s Experience Joining the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, as soon as she completed her doctorate,
Dr Anny Manrich has worked on several projects, including the more than three-year partnership project with BRF, a major food producer in Brazil. As a postdoctoral fellow.
Dr Anny Manrich has also contributed to several business consultancies and research projects of the National Nanotechnology Laboratory System in areas such as food technology, fibres, films and coatings and Nanotechnology; in a very determined way, having a great team relationship, being creative and committed.
Growing concerns about the safe introduction of nanomaterials into today’s life emphasises the need to create regulatory documentation in front of characterising, using and testing them. Dr Anny Manrich worked for two years on a characterization project for nanoscale materials, with the aim of exploring their possible health effects.
Despite not having specific academic training in packaging or polymeric films, Dr Anny Manrich works at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation in areas of edible and biodegradable films produced from agricultural waste and in the development of films with greater resistance to water, having articles published in renowned scientific journals, which demonstrates her multidisciplinary understanding and creativity.
In addition, she worked for four years as a consultant to a food company to develop a line of snacks that are healthy and that add functional ingredients, physiologically active compounds that bring health benefits, made from fruits and vegetables, enabling diet improvement, disease prevention and reduction of nutritional deficiencies.
Dr Anny Manrich participated as a member of the examination board for two Master’s exams and one PhD exam at the Department of Chemical Engineering of the Federal University of São Carlos.
Education:
- 2001 Bachelor in Food Engineering at the State University of Campinas, Brazil
- 1999 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
- 2004 Master in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2012 PhD in Chemical Engineering at the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil
- 2010 One year scholarship at the Technical University of Munich
The main publications of Dr. Anny Manrich are:
Articles
Manrich, A., Moreira, F. K., Otoni, C. G., Lorevice, M. V., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. (2017). Hydrophobic edible films made up of tomato cutin and pectin. Carbohydrate Polymers, 164, 83-91.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H. A., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Correlating emulsion characteristics with the properties of active starch films loaded with lemongrass essential oil. Food Hydrocolloids, 100, 105428.
Norcino, L. B., Mendes, J. F., Natarelli, C. V. L., Manrich, A., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Pectin films loaded with copaiba oil nanoemulsions for potential use as bio-based active packaging. Food Hydrocolloids, 106, 105862.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization of trypsin on chitosan gels: Use of different activation protocols and comparison with other supports. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 43.1 (2008): 54-61.
Manrich, Anny; Komesu, Andrea ; Adriano, Wellington Sabino; Tardioli, Paulo Waldir ; Giordano, Raquel Lima Camargo . Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by Multipoint Covalent Attachment on Agarose and on Chitosan Supports. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, v. 161, p. 455-467, 2010.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Neto, A. S., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Mattoso, L. H. C., & Martins, M. A. (2019). Development and physical-chemical properties of pectin film reinforced with spent coffee grounds by continuous casting. Carbohydrate polymers, 210, 92-99..
Milessi, T. S., Kopp, W., Rojas, M. J., Manrich, A., Baptista-Neto, A., Tardioli, P. W., … & Giordano, R. L. (2016). Immobilization and stabilization of an endoxylanase from Bacillus subtilis (XynA) for xylooligosaccharides (XOs) production. Catalysis Today, 259, 130-139.
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Manrich, A., Pinheiro, A. C. M., Oliveira, J. E., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2020). Development, physical‐chemical properties, and photodegradation of pectin film reinforced with malt bagasse fibers by continuous casting. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 137(39), 49178.
Mendes, J. F., Martins, J. T., Manrich, A., Luchesi, B. R., Dantas, A. P. S., Vanderlei, R. M., … & Martins, M. A. (2021). Thermo-physical and mechanical characteristics of composites based on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) e spent coffee grounds (SCG). Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 29, 2888-2900..
Mendes, J. F., Norcino, L. B., Martins, H. H., Manrich, A., Otoni, C. G., Carvalho, E. E. N., … & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Development of quaternary nanocomposites made up of cassava starch, cocoa butter, lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion, and brewery spent grain fibers. Journal of Food Science, 86(5), 1979-1996.
Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. (2021). Manufacture and performance of peanut skin cellulose nanocrystals. Scientia Agricola, 79.
Nascimento, V. M., Manrich, A., Tardioli, P. W., de Campos Giordano, R., de Moraes Rocha, G. J., & Giordano, R. D. L. C. (2016). Alkaline pretreatment for practicable production of ethanol and xylooligosaccharides. Bioethanol, 2(1)..
Manrich, Anny, de Oliveira, J. E., Martins, M. A., & Mattoso, L. H. C. Physicochemical and Thermal Characterization of the Spirulina platensis. J. Agric. Sci. Technol. B, v. 10, p. 298-307, 2020.
Book Chapter
Terra, I. A. A., Aoki, P. H., Delezuk, J. A. D. M., Martins, M. A., Manrich, A., Silva, M. J., … & Miranda, P. B. (2022). Técnicas de Caracterização de Polímeros. Nanotecnologia Aplicada a Polímeros, 614.
Conference Papers
Ferreira, L. F., Luvizaro, L. B., Manrich, A., Martins, M. A., Júnior, M. G., & Dias, M. V. (2017). Comparação da estabilidade de suspensões poliméricas de amido/tocoferol e quitosana/tocoferol. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE POLÍMEROS, 14., 2017, Águas de Lindóia, SP.
Manrich, A., Hubinger, S. Z., & Paris, E. C. (2017). Citotoxicidade causada por nanomateriais: avaliação do micronúcleo. In: WORKSHOP DA REDE DE NANOTECNOLOGIA APLICADA AO AGRONEGÓCIO, 9., 2017, São Carlos. Anais… São Carlos: Embrapa Instrumentação, 2017. p. 655-658.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Immobilization and Stabilization of Xylanase by multipoint covalent attachment on Glyoxyl Agarose Support. The 31st Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2009.
Manrich, Anny, et al. Application of immobilized xylanase on hydrolysis of soluble wood hemicelluloses after using microwave and organosolv pre-treatments. The 32nd Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels and Chemicals. 2010.
You can view some of Dr Anny’s work below and links to her professional profile.
Research Gate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anny-Manrich-2
Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=23103497100
Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=Ea9qpr0AAAAJ
Linkedin: https://br.linkedin.com/in/anny-manrich-20693129
In this brief guide, we are going to answer the question “Can vegans eat yeast?”, and discuss other questions like what is yeast, why is yeast considered vegan.
Can vegans eat yeast?
Yes, vegans can eat yeast. Most vegans include yeast in their diet.
People who practice veganism intend to avoid practices that cause harm to sentient beings of other species, that is, vegans value animal welfare or the ethics of animal rights. Still, there is also a concern for the environment, because animal husbandry has a major impact on human-induced climate change (1).
According to The Vegan Society, veganism is “a philosophy and way of life which seeks to exclude, as far as is possible and practicable, all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose”. Therefore, it is not restricted to diet, but also to clothes, furniture, and personal care (1).
But, as yeasts are microorganisms (2) and not animals, these yeasts can be part of a vegan’s diet, without hurting their ethical concerns.
Why is yeast considered vegan?
Yeast is considered vegan because it is a microorganism, unicellular fungi, and has a round, oval, or elongated shape (2,3).
This microorganism has become the most important microorganism that man has benefited from for obtaining and processing the most relevant alcoholic beverages and bread (4).
Especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae and related species, yeast has been used by humans since ancient times. In past centuries, the increased demand in yeast-related products has converted yeast biomass into a valuable product and has forced the generation and optimization of industrial yeast biomass production processes, which currently generate vast quantities of yeasts yearly (5).
Mushrooms are also a fungi and it is consumed by vegans (without hurting their philosophy). The difference between mushrooms and yeast is that yeast is unicellular, while mushrooms (filamentous fungi) are multicellular (and macroscopic) (15,16,17). Therefore, yeast can also be consumed by vegans.
Yeast is within the fungal kingdom (18) so, they do not belong to the animal kingdom. Previously, fungi were even classified in the plant kingdom. But these days fungi have their kingdom (19). Therefore, yeasts are more like plants than animals.
What is the yeast used for?
Yeast is generally regarded as safe (GRAS) with the status given by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (6).
It has been used industrially for years and is a very useful microorganism participating in the most varied industrial sectors, such as food, beverages (breweries, wineries, distilleries), fuels (bioethanol), cosmetics, pharmaceuticals (biopharmaceuticals) and others (7,8).
Below are some of the commercial yeast biosynthesis products and their applications.
– Biofuel: precursor of derivative esters and p-xylene; additive for paint, ink, automotive polish, paint cleaner, and gasoline (6);
– Insulin protein – Used for diabetic treatment in the pharmaceutical industry (6);
– Hepatitis B surface antigen: Used to produce hepatitis vaccines (6);
– Human P53 tumor suppressor: Used as therapeutic proteins in the medical field (6);
– Fibroblast growth factor 20 (FGF20): Involved in embryonic development, cell growth, morphogenesis, tissue repair, tumor growth, and invasion and helps in effective drug development (6);
– Probiotic: Some studies show the efficacy of S. cerevisiae var. boulardii against different pathogenic gastrointestinal diseases.
Consumption of yeast S. cerevisiae var. boulardii may also reduce the likelihood of comorbid conditions caused by continuous antibiotic use over long periods (9);
– Ethanol: Beer, wine, and whisky are some examples. In general, yeast converts sugar into alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) in a process called fermentation (10). But they also are responsible for the different flavor profiles of beer, for example (11);
– Lactic acid (LA): food additive, detergent industry, antibacterial agent (6);
– Succinic acid (SA): Food additive and dietary supplement, a precursor to polymers, resins, and solvent (6);
– Single Cell Protein: Also called “microbial meat” or “microbial protein”, it is a dry cell of microorganisms (which may also be from bacteria, fungi and algae).
Single Cell Protein is used as a protein food supplement in human or animal food, having a high content of protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals in addition to being rich in essential amino acids such as lysine and methionine that are absent in most plant and animal foods (12,13).
It is also a way to dispose of large amounts of residual yeast from the production of beer, wine, etc (14).
Are there any benefits to eating yeast as a vegan?
Yes, there are many benefits to eating yeast as a vegan.
Vitamin B12 is vital for the proper functioning of the body and its deficiency can lead to a wide variety of physical and mental symptoms, and may affect vegetarians because the main source of this vitamin is from animal foods (23).
The brewer’s yeasts are often used as an abundant source of a vitamin B complex, including B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), and B7 (biotin) (20,21). So, it reduces the risk of deficiencies.
Yeasts also contain other essential microelements that participate in the physiological and metabolic processes in human organisms, such as Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, and Mg (21).
The literature shows that yeast, with the addition of selenium, protects proteins, lipids and DNA from oxidative damage and helps the immune system and thyroid hormone (22).
Studies suggest that chromium supplements can be beneficial for diabetic patients. It can help them keep sugar levels in check, and improve glucose tolerance, therefore reducing the amount of insulin needed (22).
It’s important to highlight that since the brewer’s yeasts are known to affect glucose metabolism, diabetic patients should call for medical advice before consuming it (21).
Some other benefits of yeast are: it may be used as a protein supplement and energy booster; it is effective in patients with acne; helps to lower the risk of obesity and cardiovascular diseases (6).
Is there any harm in eating yeast?
Yes, there are some harms to eating yeast.
For individuals with inflammatory bowel disease (eg, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease), glaucoma, and hypertension, yeast is not recommended. People who frequently suffer from yeast infections or who are allergic to yeast should avoid brewer’s yeast supplements (21).
Conclusion
In this brief guide, we answered the question “Can vegans eat yeast?”, and discussed other questions like what is yeast, why is yeast considered vegan and what are its benefits and harms.
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If you have any questions please let us know.
Other FAQs about Vegans which you may be interested in.
References
1. Beck V, Ladwig B. Ethical consumerism: Veganism. WIREs Climate Change. 2020 Dec 8;12(1).
2. Engelkirk PG, Duben-Engelkirk J, Fader RC. Burton’s Microbiology for the Health Sciences, enhanced edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2020.
3. Heritage J, Evans EGV, Killington RA. Introductory microbiology. Cambridge University Press; 1996.
4. Lazo-Vélez MA, Serna-Saldívar SO, Rosales-Medina MF, Tinoco-Alvear M, Briones-García M. Application of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardiiin food processing: A review. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2018 Aug 16;125(4):943–51.
5. Pérez-Torrado R, Gamero E, Gómez-Pastor R, Garre E, Aranda A, Matallana E. Yeast biomass, an optimised product with myriad applications in the food industry. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2015 Dec;46(2):167–75.
6. Nandy SK, Srivastava RK. A review on sustainable yeast biotechnological processes and applications. Microbiological Research. 2018 Mar;207:83–90.
7. Mohd Azhar SH, Abdulla R, Jambo SA, Marbawi H, Gansau JA, Mohd Faik AA, et al. Yeasts in sustainable bioethanol production: A review. Biochemistry and Biophysics Reports. 2017 Jul;10:52–61.
8. Satyanarayana T, Kunze G. Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications. Springer Science & Business Media; 2009.
9. Abid R, Waseem H, Ali J, Ghazanfar S, Muhammad Ali G, Elasbali AM, et al. Probiotic Yeast Saccharomyces: Back to Nature to Improve Human Health. Journal of Fungi. 2022 Apr 24;8(5):444.
10. Seo SO, Park SK, Jung SC, Ryu CM, Kim JS. Anti-Contamination Strategies for Yeast Fermentations. Microorganisms. 2020 Feb 18;8(2):274.
11. Boekhout T, Robert V. Yeasts in Food. Elsevier; 2003.
12. Malla Obaida BAR. Yeasts as a source of single cell protein production : A review. PLANT ARCHIVES. 2021 Jan 15;21(Suppliment-1):324–8.
13. Cardoso Alves S, Díaz-Ruiz E, Lisboa B, Sharma M, Mussatto SI, Thakur VK, et al. Microbial meat: A sustainable vegan protein source produced from agri-waste to feed the world. Food Research International. 2023 Apr;166:112596.
14. Thiago R dos SM, Pedro PM de M, Eliana FCS. Solid wastes in brewing process: A review. Journal of Brewing and Distilling. 2014 Jul 30;5(1):1–9.
15. Schaechter M. Desk Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Academic Press; 2010.
16. Strong PJ, Self R, Allikian K, Szewczyk E, Speight R, O’Hara I, et al. Filamentous fungi for future functional food and feed. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2022 Aug;76:102729.
17. Li L, Wright SJ, Krystofova S, Park G, Borkovich KA. Heterotrimeric G Protein Signaling in Filamentous Fungi. Annual Review of Microbiology. 2007 Oct 1;61(1):423–52.
18. Heitman J. Microbial pathogens in the fungal kingdom. Fungal Biology Reviews. 2011 Mar;25(1):48–60.
19. Ekarius C. Small-Scale Livestock Farming: A Grass-Based Approach for Health, Sustainability, and Profit. Hachette UK; 2010.
20. Szydłowska J, Gładysz K, Żuchnik O, Król O, Kwiatkowski P, Kuczyńska B, et al. Benefits of nutritional yeast for children on vegan diet. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2022 Dec 2;13(1):209–15.
21. Jach M E, Serefko A, Sajnaga E, Kozak E, Poleszak E, Malm A. Dietary supplements based on the yeast biomass. Current Topics in Nutraceutical Research. 2015 May;13(2):83.
22. Hosseinzadeh P, Javanbakht M H, Mostafavi SA, Djalali M, Derakhshanian H, Hajianfar H, et al. Brewer’s Yeast Improves Glycemic Indices in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. International Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2013 Oct;4(10):1131–8.
23. Rashid S, Meier V, Patrick H. Review of Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnancy: a diagnosis not to miss as veganism and vegetarianism become more prevalent. European Journal of Haematology. 2021 Feb 2;106(4):450–5.
